special relativity

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A huge thank you to Prof. Geraint Lewis, Prof. Melissa Franklin, Prof. David Kaiser, Elba Alonso-Monsalve, Richard Behiel, Prof. Leo Stein and Jakob Schwintenberg for their invaluable expertise and contributions to this video.

Special thanks to Alessandro from ScienceClic for his help on animations and input on the script. Check out his excellent video on Noether’s theorem here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hF_uHfSoOGA

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0:00 What is symmetry?
4:25 Emmy Noether and Einstein
7:33 General Covariance
11:59 The Principle of Least Action
15:29 Noether’s First Theorem
18:24 The Continuity Equation
23:20 Escape from Germany
24:49 The Standard Model – Higgs and Quarks

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References:
MathHistory Biography – Emmy Amalie Noether via mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk – https://ve42.co/BioNoether
Bartlett, J. G. (2021). The Standard Cosmological Model and CMB Anisotropies. New Astron.Rev. 43 (1999) 83-109 – https://ve42.co/CosmoCMB
Kimberling, C. (1982). Emmy Noether, Greatest Woman Mathematician. Mathematics Teacher, March 1982, Volume 84, Number 3, pp. 246–249. – https://ve42.co/NoetherGreat
Blunck, A., et al. (2016). Mathematik und Gender. Verlag Franzbecker – https://ve42.co/MathGender
Evans, R. J. (1976). The Feminist movement in Germany, 1894-1933. Sage Publications – https://ve42.co/FeministGer
Without Emmy Noether, there would be a huge gap in mathematics and its understanding via www.mpg.de – https://ve42.co/NoetherGap
Dihedral group of order 6 via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/Dihedral6
Emmy Noether University of Erlangen via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/Erlangen
Timeline of women in mathematics via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/WomenMath
Elizaveta Litvinova via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/LitvinovaE
Sofya Kovalevskaya via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/KovalevskayaS
Charlotte Scott via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/ScottC
Cornelia Fabri via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/FabriC
Emmy Noether, the renowned mathematician who taught 20 years of unpaid classes just because she was a woman via english.elpais.com – https://ve42.co/NoetherPay
Noether, E. (1908). Über die Bildung des Formensystems der ternären biquadratischen Form. Reimer – https://ve42.co/NDissert
Noether, E. (1983). Invariante Variationsprobleme. Gott.Nachr.1918:235-257,1918; Transp.Theory Statist.Phys.1:186-207,1971 – https://ve42.co/InvarProb
Noether, E. (2018). M. A. Tavel’s English translation of “Invariante Variationsprobleme”. arXiv – https://ve42.co/InvarProbEn
Byers, N. (1998). E. Noether’s Discovery of the Deep Connection Between Symmetries and Conservation Laws*. Mod.Phys.Lett. A14 (1999) 99-104 – https://ve42.co/SymCon
De Haro, S. (2021). Noether’s Theorems and Energy in General Relativity. Cambridge University Press, 2021 – https://ve42.co/EnergyGR
Rowe, D. E. (2019). Emmy Noether on Energy Conservation in General Relativity. arXiv – https://ve42.co/EnergyCon
Branding, K. (2005). A Note on General Relativity, Energy Conservation, and Noether’s Theorems. Springer – https://ve42.co/GRanEC

Additional References:
https://ve42.co/NoethersAdRefs

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Directed by Matthew Davies
Written by Matthew Davies, Casper Mebius, Derek Muller and Pablo Rovetto
Edited by Trenton Oliver, Peter Nelson and Nick Lear
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Emma Wright, Andrew Neet, Alessandro Roussel and Ivy Tello
Illustrations by Jakub Misiek, Cainejan Esperanza, Tommy Stevens, Maria Gusakovich and Emma Wright
Additional research by Henry van Dyck, Gabe Strong and Darius Garewal
Produced by Matthew Davies, Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, Zoe Heron, Rob Beasley Spence and Tori Brittain

Thumbnail contributions by Jakub Misiek, Ren Hurley, Ben Powell and Peter Sheppard

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound